Traditional Medicine In Africa Research Articles

Interaction of Norsecurinine-Type Oligomeric Alkaloids with α-Tubulin: A Molecular Docking Study.

The medicinal plant Securinega virosa (Roxb ex. Willd) Baill., also known as Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle, is commonly used in traditional medicine in Africa and Asia for the management of diverse pathologies, such as parasite infections, diabetes, and gastrointestinal diseases. Numerous alkaloids have been isolated from the twigs and leaves of the plant, notably a variety of oligomeric indolizidine alkaloids derived from the monomers securinine and norsecurinine which both display anticancer properties. The recent discovery that securinine can bind to tubulin and inhibit microtubule assembly prompted us to investigate the potential binding of two series of alkaloids, fluevirosines A-H and fluevirosinine A-J, with the tubulin dimer by means of molecular modeling. These natural products are rare high-order alkaloids with tri-, tetra-, and pentameric norsecurinine motifs. Despite their large size (up to 2500 Å3), these alkaloids can bind easily to the large drug-binding cavity (about 4800 Å3) on α-tubulin facing the β-tubulin unit. The molecular docking analysis suggests that these hydrophobic macro-alkaloids can form stable complexes with α/β-tubulin. The tubulin-binding capacity varies depending on the alkaloid size and structure. Structure-binding relationships are discussed. The docking analysis identifies the trimer fluevirosine D, tetramer fluevirosinine D, and pentamer fluevirosinine H as the most interesting tubulin ligands in the series. This study is the first to propose a molecular target for these atypical oligomeric Securinega alkaloids.

Utilization and Effectiveness of Herbal Medicine in Treatment of Malaria in Osun State

Concern among health professionals has been raised by the ongoing rise in the prevalence of malaria in recent years. Herbal treatments have been deemed the most popular form of traditional medicine in Africa and a high percentage used it for malaria treatment. Poor health care services with unaffordable malaria have been a major barrier to malaria control. This study investigated the use and effectiveness of traditional medicine in treatment of malaria in Osun State, Nigeria. 15 people with malaria across the three senatorial districts of Osun State were selected, using snow balling sampling techniques. Experimental design was utilised to assess the level of knowledge on malaria. Descriptive survey was used to assess the use of traditional medicine, and true experiments to test efficacy of herbal medicine. This study found that respondents have inadequate knowledge of traditional medicine for treatment of malaria and lack adequate knowledge that anopheles mosquito cause malaria. However, use of traditional medicine is high among respondents, with most of the listed herbs achieving a significant point for mean (2.5). Majority of respondents either have malaria parasites hibernated and experience malaria relapse later or the herbal medicine used were ineffective in the first place. The effectiveness of these combined herbs is also dependent on the intensity of the malaria infection. The study concluded that traditional medicine is effective among just in a few of the respondents, who combined, prepared herbs appropriately and took it as prescribed by experienced herbs experts. Keywords; Malaria, Treatment of malaria, Herbal medicine.

Need for stable quality control and drug pharmacopeia in African pharmaceutical settings: a new way to independent drug production

For years now, Africa are on the verge of a shortage of drug production1,2, quality control of traditional/indigenous plants, and imported drugs due to limited stable pharmacopeia availability specifically for African herbs, drugs, and plants. Therefore, we write this piece to raise and put African Union stakeholders into action to see the need to have a stable quality control drug pharmacopeia in Africa. In the course of advancing sustainable drug discovery and development, many countries are making indelible efforts through the implementation of policies regulating medicines. Pharmacopoeia is a reverenced compendium of regulations and official standards for the qualitative and quantitative compositions of medicines and manufacturing of drugs3. Unlike the British Pharmacopoeia (BP), United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), and European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), the African Union (AU) has 2 pharmacopeias: the African Pharmacopoeia (169 traditional plants) and African Herbal Pharmacopoeia (51 traditional plants), which have detailed botanical description of medicinal plants and quality control protocols of traditional medicines that should be followed for chemical analysis and medicinal development of the selected African traditional plants4,5. However, this pharmacopeia does not have regulations and official standards for the quality and quantitative composition of other unlisted indigenous plants and imported drugs for quality control analysis in African settings. The limitations of the indigenous continental monograph silently promote the deindustrialization of pharmaceutical manufacturing and productivity in Africa. Lack of indigenous regulatory compendial influences poor manufacturing practice and inappropriate processes in the supply chain that support substandard and falsified medicines in many low-middle incomes countries in Africa6. The AU Commission and other indigenous pharma experts should take the lead and actions toward the development of full standard pharmacopeia for all indigenous/traditional plants to promote pharma industrialization and improve standardization of quality medicine7, and quality control of drug composition and traditional medicine in Africa, and for Africans without compromising on international standards. A collative review of the USP, Ph. Eur., and BP can provide the right direction for a start to look inward as Africans to provide a working draft that could advance the frontiers of good manufacturing practice, quality controls, proper marketing authorization and appropriate supply chain of medicines and herbal products in the AU. Regular training for experts or professionals would support the drive and sustainability of these regulations to help the government and other competent authorities in various African countries. Ethical approval None. Sources of funding None. Author contribution V.N.N.: conceptualized the study. V.N.N., A.T.A., and F.A.A.: draft manuscript, review editing, formatting, and referencing. Conflict of interest disclosure The authors declare that they have no financial conflict of interest with regard to the content of this report. Research registration unique identifying number (UIN) N/A. Guarantor Victor N. Nweze. Provenance and peer review Not commissioned, externally peer reviewed.

Effect of a decoction of Lophira alata (Banks ex P. Gaertn) on the pharmacokinetics of risperidone: Study of a drug-herb interaction

Drug interactions may cause a drug to be more or less effective (synergism or antagonism), or cause unexpected effects on the body. Risperidone is a second-generation atypical antipsychotic medication while Lophira alata is a plant used traditionally to treat psychotic disorders. A large number of patients with psychosis have been reported to simultaneously use both orthodox and traditional medicines in Africa. This research was carried out to determine the effect of concomitant administration of risperidone and Lophira alata in healthy human volunteers. The first phase of the research was carried out to establish the baseline pharmacokinetic profile of risperidone 2 mg in 18 male subjects. The second phase was carried out after a 2-week washout period, where the subjects were randomly divided into three equal groups and group A received risperidone 2 mg and decoction of the herb (9.4mg/kg) concurrently, group B received risperidone 2 mg and decoction of the herb (9.4mg/kg) was administered after 1 hour and group C received a decoction of the herb (9.4mg/kg) and risperidone 2 mg was administered after 1 hour. Blood samples were collected at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12 and 24 hours after drug administration, and plasma analyses were carried out using a developed RP-HPLC method to determine the plasma concentrations. Subsequently, Kinetica 5.0 software was used to extrapolate pharmacokinetic parameters from the plasma concentrations. Results show that there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the rate of absorption (ka), peak plasma concentration (Cmax) and measure of drug exposed to the body (AUC0-∞) but significant (p < 0.05) decrease in the time to achieve peak plasma concentration (tmax), half-life of absorption (t1/2a) and extent of drug distribution (Vd) when risperidone and Lophira alata were administered concurrently. Drug-herb interaction was observed to be more significant (p < 0.05), when Lophira alata was administered concurrently with risperidone than when administered one hour before or after Lophira alata. Decoction of Lophira alata interacts with risperidone tablets when administered together, which may be attributed to alteration in the mechanism of risperidone absorption by Lophira alata.

Developmental Toxicity Assessment of Drymaria Cordata (Linn.) Willd using Zebrafish Embryo.

Drymaria cordata (Linn.) Willd is a creeping herb belonging to the Caryophyllaceae family, widely used as a traditional medicine in Africa and North-east India for various ailments. Many therapeutic applications of D. cordata have been reported in various scientific studies, but the teratogenicity study of this herb has not been documented till now. The present study aimed to assess the developmental toxic effect and median lethal concentration (LC50) of methanol extract of Drymaria cordata leaf (DCME) using zebrafish embryos. After spawning of male and female zebrafish, healthy zebrafish embryos were selected by microscopic screening and transferred into 96-well plate for the study. Embryos were exposed to DCME at concentrations ranging from 50-400 μg/ml in 2% DMSO from 24 hpf to 72 hpf. Developmental and morphological abnormalities were microscopically evaluated. Fifty percent lethal concentration (LC50) of DCME was determined by observation from 24 hpf to 72 hpf. The concentration-dependent toxic effects of DCME on developing embryos of zebrafish were found in the study in a time-dependent manner. At 72 hpf, the median lethal concentration (LC50) of DCME was found with visible developmental defects, such as heartbeat rate, less pigmentation, oedema, spinal curvature, immature yolk sac as well as reduced hatching rate and a slow growth. The median lethal dose was found to be 448 μg/ml at 72 hpf for zebra fish embryos, meriting further studies on toxicological profiling of the plants.

Evaluation of chemical compounds in Plectranthus barbatus leaves extract for application in reduction of tannery wastewater toxicity

Plectranthus barbatus Andr. grows in Kenya, sub-Saharan Africa, Australia, Brazil and Asia and is one of the most important species of the Lamiaceae family. The plant is widely mentioned in traditional medicine in Africa and Asia. Some of the compounds previously isolated from the plant include diterpenoids, phenolic acids and essential oils. The objective of the study was to evaluate and determine the presence of chemical compounds in Plectranthus barbatus Andr. leaves extract of tannin nature that can be beneficial ingredients in processing clean leather and at the same time reduce environmental pollution. The Plant’s leaves were collected from Nyamira County then dried and ground to desired mesh before extraction was done with water and 80 % methanol in water. The methanolic solid extract that was recovered after freeze drying was subjected to column chromatography. The pure fractions were analyzed using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy and compared to those previously analyzed using High Pressure Liquid Chromatography. Some of the compounds isolated include phenolics e.g. Para-Hydroxybenzoic acid and Diterpenes. Water solid extract was used in pre-tanning and re-tanning applications followed by analysis of Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, pH and total chrome content of respective wastewaters. Tannery liquor from re-tanning and pre-tanning combinations with Plecranthus barbatus leaves extract showed reduced toxicity to the environment with pH of 7.97 and 2.96 respectively as compared to chrome tannage liquor that recorded a relatively more acidic pH of 2.30. Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand and chrome content levels were 230.00 mg/l, 4520.00 mg/l and 9.69 ppm respectively for effluent from Plectranthus barbatus retannage against 320.10 mg/l, 2331.20 and 5.03 ppm respectively from pretannage of the same extract. Permissible limits for pH, Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand and total chrome in discharged tannery wastewater are 5.5 – 10.0, 125 mg/l – 1000 mg/l, 300 mg/l – 3000 mg/l, and 1.0 ppm – 10.0 ppm respectively. Pretanning with Plectranthus barbatus leaves extract during leather processing was more effective is reduction of tannery wastewater toxicity although, the use of pretanning and retanning in a single tannage might yield more promising results.

African Traditional Religion and Medicine in Contemporary Times

This paper examines traditional religion and medicine in Africa. Little credence is given to quality healthcare through traditional medicine in Africa and Nigeria to be precise. Every nation is saddled with the responsibility of ensuring quality healthcare delivery for its citizens. Regrettably, as a result of inconsistency in policy, misplacement of priority and corruption, healthcare indices in Nigeria and Africa generally are among the worst globally. Preventable diseases like malaria, diarrhoea, measles, typhoid, tuberculosis, diabetes and hypertension, among others, often lead to avoidable death. These are diseases which traditional medicine had been effectively providing remedies and cure for from timeimmemorial to the present period but this system has been neglected by the government. This is the problem that this study is meant to bring to the fore and thus be solved by proving ways in which traditional medicine can positively impact Nigerian society and Africa at large. Adopting the phenomenological, historical-analytic and direct observation methods, the article covers the use of herbs for healing purposes, medicine men and traditional practice in Africa, aspects of traditional medicine practised in Africa, divination, medicine and healing, medicine and taboo, and traditional medicine in modern society. 

Cucurbitaceae species used as traditional medicine in West Africa

Background: The use of some Cucurbitaceae species for the treatment of diseases is an ancient practice in traditional medicine systems in Africa and the cucurbitacins among others have been reported to be responsible for most of these healing activities.Aim: This review discusses the relevance of Cucurbitaceae species in traditional medicine in some west African countries.Methods: A literature search was conducted on electronic databases such as Google Books, Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science. The search involved the use of several terms and free text words which include ‘Cucurbitaceae species in West Africa traditional medicine’; ‘medicinal plants of the Cucurbitaceae family used to treat diseases in west African communities’.Results: Several Cucurbitaceae species are used in the region either in similar ways or different ways for the treatment of different diseases. The leaves are the most utilised plant parts and decoctions are the most common method of preparation. From this study, 18 species of Cucurbitaceae used for medicinal purposes were reviewed from Nigeria; 4 from Benin, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Mali, respectively; 1 from Togo; 5 from Senegal; 9 from Cameroon and 3 from Gabon and Burkina Faso, respectively. Momordica charantia and Momordica balsamina are often utilised for abortion in some west African countries. Momordica species and Lagenaria breviflora are utilised to treat diabetes, cough related to respiratory infections and viral infections such as measles and chickenpoxConclusions: In-depth research into these plants could help to develop a natural, novel cure for diabetes and coronavirus (COVID-19) and effective, cheap contraceptive.Contribution: This review highlights the significant role of Cucurbitaceae species in the treatment of a wide range of diseases and health issues in the WestAfrican traditional medicine system. The information provided could be used as a guide by research scientists for the formulation of natural products to cure a variety of diseases.

An Evaluation of the Novel Biological Properties of Diterpenes Isolated from Plectranthus ornatus Codd. In Vitro and In Silico.

Plectranthus ornatus Codd, the genus Plectranthus of the Lamiaceae family, has been used as traditional medicine in Africa, India and Australia. Pharmacological studies show the use of this plant to treat digestive problems. In turn, leaves were used for their antibiotic properties in some regions of Brazil to treat skin infections. The present study examines the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and cytotoxic effects of the halimane and labdane diterpenes (11R*,13E)-11-acetoxyhalima-5,13-dien-15-oic acid (HAL) and 1α,6β-diacetoxy-8α,13R*-epoxy-14-labden-11-one (PLEC) and the forskolin-like 1:1 mixture of 1,6-di-O-acetylforskolin and 1,6-di-O-acetyl-9-deoxyforskolin (MRC) isolated from P. ornatus on lung (A549) and leukemia (CCRF-CEM) cancer cell lines, and on normal human retinal pigment epithelial (ARPE-19) cell line in vitro. Additionally, molecular docking and computational approaches were used. ADMET properties were analysed through SwissADME and proTox-II—Prediction. The results indicate that all tested compounds significantly reduced the viability of the cancer cells and demonstrated no cytotoxic effects against the non-neoplastic cell line. The apoptosis indicators showed increased ROS levels for both the tested A549 and CCRF-CEM cancer cell lines after treatment. Furthermore, computational studies found HAL to exhibit moderate antioxidant activity. In addition, selected compounds changed mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and increased DNA damage and mitochondrial copy number for the CCRF-CEM cancer cell line; they also demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects on the ARPE-19 normal cell line upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment, which was associated with the modulation of IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α and GM-CSF genes expression. Docking studies gave indication about the lowest binding energy for 1,6-di-O-acetylforskolin docked into IL-6, TNF-α and GM-CSF, and 1,6-di-O-acetyl-9-deoxyforskolin docked into IL-8. The ADMET studies showed drug-likeness properties for the studied compounds. Thus, halimane and labdane diterpenes isolated from P. ornatus appear to offer biological potential; however, further research is necessary to understand their interactions and beneficial properties.

Anxiolytic and antipyretic effects of the aqueous extract of the leaves of Solanum aethiopicum (Solanaceae) in the white mouse Mus musculus Swiss (Muridae)

The anxiolytic and antipyretic effects of the aqueous extract of the leaves of Solanum aethiopicum (plant used in traditional medicine in Africa) were evaluated by oral administration of doses 17.5; 43.75; 87.5 and 175 mg/kg to mice of the Mus musculus Swiss strain. Four psychopharmacological tests were performed: the stress-induced hyperthermia test; the elevated plus maze test; the open arena test and the hole board test. A significant decrease in stress-induced hyperthermia was observed in mice receiving the 175 mg/kg dose (1°C) unlike those treated with distilled water (3°C). The 175 mg/kg dose of S. aethiopicum extract and diazepam significantly increase the number of entries and the percentage of time spent in the open arms of the maze. Diazepam and doses of S. aethiopicum significantly decrease the number of uprights and the number of head tilts. Solanum aethiopicum significantly increases the number of lines crossed and the time spent in the center of the open arena. On the hole board, there was a significant increase in the number of head tilts (11.2±1,64) in the mice that received the 175 mg/kg dose of S. aethiopicum and in the number of lines crossed in the mice treated with all doses of the extract. This shows that the extract of S. aethiopicum would contain compounds with antipyretic and anxiolytic properties.

Biochemical changes associated with the administration of aqueous pulp extract of Irvingia gabonensis fruit on adult male Wistar rats

This study evaluates the medicinal and therapeutic importance of aqueous pulp extract of Irvingia gabonensis (APEIG) fruit on some biochemical indices in adult male albino rats. Thirty-six adult male rats were grouped into 3 groups of 12 rats each. Group 1 was the control, while groups 2 and 3 received 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight of the extract respectively. The quantitative and qualitative phytochemical constituents present in the APEIG were alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids in moderate amounts, while saponins, tannins, glycosides, sterols, and phenols were detected in trace amounts. The treatment lasted for 21 days and biochemical parameters were analyzed following standard procedures. Results obtained indicated a reduction in the bodyweight of the treated groups. The serum cholesterol, LDL, and VLDL concentrations were significantly moderated in the treatment groups, although, the serum HDL concentration was elevated dose-dependently on days 14 and 21. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was elevated in the treatment groups on days 7 and 14 while aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), creatinine, urea, uric acid, total protein, and albumin were not affected by the administration of (APEIG) on days 7, 14 and 21. Serum bilirubin was significantly lowered in the treatment groups on days 7, 14, and 21 while fasting blood glucose (FBS) of the treated groups was moderate. The results revealed that the administration of APEIG had promising medicinal potentials and could be harnessed in disease management. This study evaluates the medicinal and therapeutic importance of aqueous pulp extract of Irvingia gabonensis (APEIG) fruit on some biochemical indices in adult male albino rats. Thirty-six adult male rats were grouped into 3 groups of 12 rats each. Group 1 was the control, while groups 2 and 3 received 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight of the extract respectively. The quantitative and qualitative phytochemical constituents present in the APEIG were alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids in moderate amounts, while saponins, tannins, glycosides, sterols, and phenols were detected in trace amounts. The treatment lasted for 21 days and biochemical parameters were analyzed following standard procedures. Results obtained indicated a reduction in the bodyweight of the treated groups. The serum cholesterol, LDL, and VLDL concentrations were significantly moderated in the treatment groups, although, the serum HDL concentration was elevated dose-dependently on days 14 and 21. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was elevated in the treatment groups on days 7 and 14 while aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), creatinine, urea, uric acid, total protein, and albumin were not affected by the administration of (APEIG) on days 7, 14 and 21. Serum bilirubin was significantly lowered in the treatment groups on days 7, 14, and 21 while fasting blood glucose (FBS) of the treated groups was moderate. The results revealed that the administration of APEIG had promising medicinal potentials and could be harnessed in disease management. Plants and plant-based foods provide essential nutrients for the wellbeing and promotion of good health in humans and animals [[1]Anaduaka E.G. Uchendu N.O. Ezeanyika L.U.S. Mineral, amino acid and fatty acid evaluations of Myristica fragrans seeds extracts.Sci Afr. 2020; 10e00567https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00567Crossref Scopus (6) Google Scholar]. A large population of the human race depends on some plant species for its basic diet of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins [[2]Egras A.M. Hamilton W.R. Lenz T.L. Monaghan M.S. An evidence-based review of fat modifying supplemental weight loss products.J Obes. 2011; 20: 29-36https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/297315Crossref Scopus (43) Google Scholar]. Although these plant species may constitute some medicinal and pharmacological potential [[3]Ekeyi Y. Uchendu N.O. Anaduaka E.G. Ezeanyika L.U.S. Ethanol extract of Cassia sieberiana leaves ameliorates deviances associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats.All Life. 2021; 14: 473-483https://doi.org/10.1080/26895293.2021.1927857Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar], their abuse may be detrimental to the system if not monitored. Irvingia gabonensis belong to the species of African tree in the genus Irvingia of the Irvingiaceae plant family commonly known as wild mango, African mango, bush mango, or ugiri (Igbo) [[4]Omonkhua A.A. Onoagbe I.O. Effect of long-term oral administration of aqueous extract of Irvingia gabonensis bark on blood glucose and liver profile of normal rabbits.J Med Plant Res. 2012; 6: 2581-2589https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR11.561Crossref Google Scholar,[5]Adeseko C.J. Sanni D.M. Salawu S.O. Kade I.J. Fatoki T.H. HPLC-UV Standard Phenolic Constituents of African Bush Mango (Irvingia gabonensis) and Molecular Docking on Polyphenol Oxidases.J Appl Life Sci Int. 2019; 22: 1-11https://doi.org/10.9734/JALSV2019/v221130119Crossref Google Scholar]. It has yellow fruits when ripe, and varies in size and shapes between varieties with fibrous pulp covering the seed [[6]Orwa C. Mutua A. Kindt R. Jamnadass R. Simons A. Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0.http://www.worldagroforestry.org/af/treedb/Date: 2009Google Scholar]. Traditionally, the pulp of this fruit is eaten fresh and the seeds are used as a food additive, and as such possess superb economic and nutritional advantages [[7]Peter P.I. Victor M. The Effect of Irvingia gabonensis Ethanol Extracts (Ogbono) Seeds on the growth rate and hematological parameters in Wistar rats.J Biomed Sci. 2020; 9: 1-4https://doi.org/10.36648/2254-609X.9.2.3Crossref Google Scholar]. They are good sources of phytochemicals including the likes of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, and glycosides, as well as proteins, minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, and soluble fibres [[8]Asoiro F.U. Ezeoha S.L. Anyanwu C.N. Aneke N.N. Physical properties of Irvingia gabonensis, Detarium microcapum, Mucuna pruriens and Brachystegia eurycoma seeds.Heliyon. 2020; 6 (1-8)e04885https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04885Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1) Google Scholar]. Studies have shown that Irvingia gabonensis pulp extract possesses therapeutic potentials which are beneficial, including but not limited to weight loss [[3]Ekeyi Y. Uchendu N.O. Anaduaka E.G. Ezeanyika L.U.S. Ethanol extract of Cassia sieberiana leaves ameliorates deviances associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia in rats.All Life. 2021; 14: 473-483https://doi.org/10.1080/26895293.2021.1927857Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar] and antioxidant activity [[9]Agbor G.A. Oben J.E. Ngogang J.Y. Xinxing C. Vinson J.A. Antioxidant capacity of some herbs/spices from Cameroon: a comparative study of two methods.J Agric Food Chem. 2005; 53: 6819-6824https://doi.org/10.1021/jf050445cCrossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar]. Other traditional uses of the bark decoction are in treating scabies, toothache, skin diseases, diarrhoea, or dysentery, and due to its hypoglycaemic effect, serve as an anti-diabetic agent [[4]Omonkhua A.A. Onoagbe I.O. Effect of long-term oral administration of aqueous extract of Irvingia gabonensis bark on blood glucose and liver profile of normal rabbits.J Med Plant Res. 2012; 6: 2581-2589https://doi.org/10.5897/JMPR11.561Crossref Google Scholar,[10]Obianime A.W. Uche F.I. Effects of aqueous extracts of Irvingia gabonensis seeds on the hormonal parameters of male guinea pigs.Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2010; 3: 200-204Crossref Scopus (7) Google Scholar]. Thus, there is a great interest in determining the phytoconstituents and further, ascertain the effect of APEIG on some biochemical indices and possible therapeutic importance and probable safety and toxicity nature in adult male albino rats. The ripe fruits of Irvingia gabonensis were sourced from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka zoological garden. The fruit was identified and authenticated by a botanist of the International Centre for Ethno-medicine and Drug Development, Nsukka. Thirty-six adult male albino rats were sourced from the animal farm of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and housed in the animal house of the Department of Biochemistry in the same University. The animals were acclimatized for seven days with a 12-hour light/dark cycle maintained on a regular feed and water. The Faculty of Biological Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Committee on Research Ethics approved the protocols for this study before its commencement (UNN/FBS/EC/1026). The fruits of Irvingia gabonensis were collected, the epicarps were peeled off, and the mesocarps were separated from the endocarp with the aid of a knife. The mesocarp was blended with a blending machine (Sonic, China). A known quantity, 100 g of blended fruits of Irvingia gabonensis were macerated in 20 ml of distilled water with thorough shaking at room temperature. The resulting solution was filtered using a Whatman No. 1 filter paper. A fresh filtrate of 100 g/20 ml was obtained daily and used for the study throughout the experiment. The qualitative and quantitative phytochemical determination of the fruit extract of Irvingia gabonensis adopted the methods described by [[11]Harborne J.B. Phytochemical methods: a guide to modern techniques of plant analysis. Chapman and Hall Ltd, London1973: 279Google Scholar,[12]Trease G.E. Evans W.C. Pharmacognosy.15th Ed. Saunder Publishers, London2002: 42-44Google Scholar]. Thirty-six (36) adult male albino rats weighing 180–220g were used in this study. They were randomly grouped into three groups of 12 rats each. The rats were orally fed graded doses of extract of Irvingia gabonensis. Group 1 was the control, while groups 2 and 3 consumed 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight of the extract respectively for 21 days. Blood samples of the rats were collected on days zero (0), seven (7), fourteen (14), and twenty-one (21) through ocular puncture for biochemical analysis. The blood samples were collected in plain tubes and then centrifuged at 2000 rpm after which the serum was separated and kept in the refrigerator for 3 weeks at a temperature of 8oC for biochemical analysis at the end of the experiment. The serum ALP, AST, and ALT were determined by the methods of [[13]Reitman S. Frankel A.S. A colorimetric method of determination of serum glutamic oxaloacetic and glutamic pyruvic transaminases.Am J Clin Pathol. 1957; 28: 53-63https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcp/28.1.56Crossref Scopus (7432) Google Scholar]. Lipid profile tests were carried out using standard diagnostic kits as described by [[14]Allain C.C. Poon L.S. Chan C.S. Richmond W. Fu P.C. Enzymatic determination of total serum cholesterol.Clin Chem. 1974; 20: 470-475Crossref PubMed Scopus (7158) Google Scholar]. The serum urea and uric acid levels were determined by the methods of [[15]Orsonneau J.L. Massoubre C. Cabanes M. Lustenberger P. Simple and sensitive determination of urea in serum and urine.Clin Chem. 1992; 38: 619-623Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar,[16]Kabasakalian P. Kalliney S. Westcott A. Determination of Uric Acid in Serum, with use of Uricase and a Tribromophenol-Aminoantipyrine Chromogen.Clinical Chemistry. 1973; 19: 522-524https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/19.5.522Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar] respectively. The serum total protein was determined using the method of [[17]Doumas B.T. Watson W.A. Biggs H.G. Albumin standards and the measurement of serum albumin with Bromocresol green.Clinica Chemica Acta. 1971; 31: 87-96https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-8981(71)90365-2Crossref PubMed Scopus (2648) Google Scholar]. The serum albumin was determined using the method of [[18]Doumas B. Peters Jr., T. Serum and urine albumin: a progress report on their measurement and clinical significance.Clinica Chimica Acta. 1997; 258: 3-20https://doi.org/10.1016/s0009-8981(96)06446-7Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Creatinine was determined by the method described by [[19]Moore J.F. Sharer J.D. Methods for Quantitative Creatinine Determination.Curr Protoc Hum Genet. 2017; 93: 1-7https://doi.org/10.1002/cphg.38Crossref PubMed Scopus (18) Google Scholar]. The total bilirubin was determined by the method described by [[20]Westwood A. The analysis of bilirubin in serum.Ann Clin Biochem. 1991; 28: 119-130https://doi.org/10.1177/000456329102800202Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar] using a test kit. The fasting blood sugar (FBS) levels were determined following the method described by [[21]Uchendu N.O. Nkwocha C.C. Anaduaka E.G. Ezeanyika L.U.S. Metabolic syndrome in adult male rats induced by feeding beef tallow-enriched homemade diet with fructose-containing drinking water.Comp Clin Path. 2021; 30: 541-547https://doi.org/10.1007/s00580-021-03248-7Crossref Scopus (1) Google Scholar]. The qualitative and quantitative phytochemical constituent of the aqueous fruit extract of Irvingia gabonensis is presented in Table 1. The result revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, glycosides, terpenoids, sterols, and phenols in the extract, while anthraquinones and anthocyanins were absent. Flavonoids and tannins were more abundant.Table 1Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical constituent of aqueous fruit extract of Irvingia gabonensis.PhytochemicalsInferenceConcentrationAlkaloids++2.26 ± 0.08 (mg/100g)Flavonoids+++6.60 ± 0.01 (mg/100g)Saponins+0.90 ± 0.01 (mg/100g)Tannins+++6.33 ± 0.02 (mg/100g)Glycosides+0.40 ± 0.03 (mg/100g)Terpenoids++4.68 ± 0.02 (mg/100g)Steroids+0.52 ± 0.01 (mg/100g)Phenols+1.23 ± 0.02 (μg/100g)Anthraquinones−Anthocyanins−− Absent; + present; ++ moderate; +++ High. Values are means ± SD, n = 3. Open table in a new tab − Absent; + present; ++ moderate; +++ High. Values are means ± SD, n = 3. There was a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in urea and creatinine concentrations in groups 2 and 3 on days 7 and 21 compared to the control while uric acid level significantly (p < 0.05) lowered on day 14 in the treated groups compared to the control (Table 2).Table 2Effects of aqueous pulp extract of Irvingia gabonensis on renal indices of adult male albino rats.ParametersGroupsDays071421Urea (mg/dl)123.00 ± 4.58a25.33 ± 4.04a28.33 ± 5.77a47.00 ± 9.60a225.33 ± 3.51a17.67 ± 4.73b16.30 ± 2.52b32.67 ± 1.53b320.33 ± 7.57a16.67 ± 1.53b35.33 ± 4.73a30.00 ± 3.61bUric acid (mg/dl)16.47 ± 0.70a5.37 ± 1.83a8.20 ± 0.56b8.33 ± 1.04a26.53 ± 0.91a6.60 ± 0.26b7.30 ± 0.36a7.47 ± 0.63a35.97 ± 1.35a8.17 ± 1.46b7.23 ± 0.12a7.46 ± 0.44aCreatinine (mg/dl)10.83 ± 0.15a0.90 ± 0.10a1.03 ± 0.15a,c1.67 ± 0.32a20.90 ± 0.10a0.67 ± 0.12b0.83 ± 0.06a1.17 ± 0.06b30.77 ± 0.21a0.60 ± 0.10b1.20 ± 0.17c1.03 ± 0.15bValues are means ± SD, n = 3. Values with a different superscript in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05.Group one: Normal control.Group two: Received 100 mg/kg of APEIG.Group three: Received 200 mg/kg of APEIG. Open table in a new tab Values are means ± SD, n = 3. Values with a different superscript in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05. Group one: Normal control. Group two: Received 100 mg/kg of APEIG. Group three: Received 200 mg/kg of APEIG. There was no significant (p > 0.05) reduction in the treated groups on days 9, 12, 15, and 18 compared to the control (Fig. 1). There were no significant (p > 0.05) variations in the total cholesterol, TAG, LDL, and VLDL in the treated groups across the days. However, HDL was significantly high in group 3 compared to groups 1 and 2 (Table 3).Table 3Effects of aqueous pulp extract of Irvingia gabonensis on serum lipid profile of adult male albino rats.ParametersGroupsDays071421Total Cholesterol (mmol/l)14.00 ± 0.20a3.50 ± 0.17a4.33 ± 0.45a4.60 ± 0.35a23.77 ± 0.59a3.80 ± 0.10a3.77 ± 0.45a4.60 ± 0.26a33.73 ± 0.25a3.60 ± 0.26a4.57 ± 0.49a4.50 ± 0.26aTAG (mmol/l)11.27 ± 0.46a1.93 ± 0.23a1.27 ± 0.51a2.27 ± 0.25a21.43 ± 0.23a1.63 ± 0.58a1.20 ± 0.44a1.87 ± 0.32a30.93 ± 0.15a1.90 ± 0.36a0.93 ± 0.41a2.00 ± 0.26aHDL (mmol/l)11.57 ± 0.15a1.50 ± 0.00a1.97 ± 0.21b,c1.57 ± 0.21b21.60 ± 0.10a1.53 ± 0.12a1.77 ± 0.15b1.57 ± 0.21b31.40 ± 0.20a1.43 ± 0.06a2.10 ± 0.10c2.00 ± 0.10cLDL (mmol/l)12.20 ± 0.10a1.57 ± 0.12a2.10 ± 0.70a2.60 ± 0.53a21.80 ± 0.40a1.87 ± 0.21a1.77 ± 0.15a2.63 ± 0.21a32.10 ± 0.26a1.73 ± 0.15a2.10 ± 0.10a2.06 ± 0.23aVLDL (mmol/l)10.23 ± 0.06a0.43 ± 0.06a0.27 ± 0.06a0.43 ± 0.06a20.37 ± 0.21a0.40 ± 0.00a0.23 ± 0.06a0.40 ± 0.10a30.23 ± 0.05a0.43 ± 0.06a0.20 ± 0.10a0.43 ± 0.06aValues are means ± SD, n = 3. Values with a different superscript in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05.Group one: Normal control.Group two: Received 100 mg/kg of APEIG.Group three: Received 200 mg/kg of APEIG. Open table in a new tab Values are means ± SD, n = 3. Values with a different superscript in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05. Group one: Normal control. Group two: Received 100 mg/kg of APEIG. Group three: Received 200 mg/kg of APEIG. There was a significant (p < 0.05) decline in ALP activity on day 7 of the treated groups compared to the control. AST had no significant changes on days 7 and 21 of treated groups compared to the control. Furthermore, ALT and total bilirubin were not significantly lowered in the treated groups compared to the control. Total protein and albumin were significantly (p < 0.05) lowered on days 14 and 21 respectively in group 3 compared to the control (Table 4).Table 4Effects of aqueous pulp extract of Irvingia gabonensis on serum liver markers of adult male albino rats.ParametersGroups0Days71421ALP (U/L)131.67 ± 1.53a37.33 ± 2.31a35.00 ± 1.73a36.67 ± 7.02a226.67 ± 8.62a27.00 ± 2.00b30.33 ± 5.69a26.33 ± 4.93a,b326.00 ± 1.00a25.33 ± 2.52b32.00 ± 3.00a22.67 ± 4.16bAST (U/L)159.33 ± 7.64a,c65.67 ± 0.58a48.67 ± 6.43a,b62.33 ± 3.22a247.33 ± 2.31b63.33 ± 17.47a54.67 ± 13.79b61.67 ± 4.51a357.67 ± 1.53c54.33 ± 11.24a36.00 ± 4.58c65.33 ± 3.51aALT (U/L)116.33 ± 1.16a20.67 ± 4.04a18.33 ± 5.69a20.00 ± 4.36a216.00 ± 1.73a18.67 ± 3.06a15.67 ± 0.58a18.00 ± 2.65a317.00 ± 2.65a20.00 ± 2.65a18.00 ± 2.65a18.67 ± 5.51aTotal Protein (g/dl)16.83 ± 0.92a7.53 ± 0.38a7.23 ± 1.17a7.57 ±1.17a25.00 ± 0.26b7.50 ± 1.18a6.40 ± 1.15a,c7.60 ± 0.95a35.30 ± 1.25b,a6.53 ± 0.76a4.97 ± 0.87c7.93 ± 1.45aAlbumin (g/l)12.40 ± 0.27a4.03 ± 1.07a3.33 ± 0.15a3.40 ± 0.17a22.17 ± 0.21a3.77 ± 0.15a3.30 ±0.17a3.57 ± 0.06a32.13 ± 0.31a3.17 ± 0.55a3.33 ± 0.50a3.77 ± 0.12aTotal Bilirubin (mg/dl)10.87±0.12a0.74 ± 0.16a0.91 ± 0.05a0.90 ± 0.06a20.88±0.06a0.77 ± 0.04a0.73 ± 0.07a0.72 ± 0.07a30.90±0.03a0.63 ± 0.10a0.79 ± 0.04a0.76 ± 0.12aValues are means ± SD, n = 3. Values with a different superscript in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05.Group one: Normal control.Group two: Received 100 mg/kg of APEIG.Group three: Received 200 mg/kg of APEIG. Open table in a new tab Values are means ± SD, n = 3. Values with a different superscript in the same column are significantly different at p < 0.05. Group one: Normal control. Group two: Received 100 mg/kg of APEIG. Group three: Received 200 mg/kg of APEIG. Plant secondary metabolites play significant roles in combating oxidative stress-related diseases because of their antioxidant potentials [[22]De Bruyne T. Pieters L. Deelstra H. Vlietinck A. Condensed vegetables tannins: biodiversity in structure and biological activities.Biochem Syst Ecol. 1999; 27: 445-459https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-1978(98)00101-XCrossref Scopus (180) Google Scholar]. In the study, the presence of the phytochemical constituents in the extract has been reported in other studies [[21]Uchendu N.O. Nkwocha C.C. Anaduaka E.G. Ezeanyika L.U.S. Metabolic syndrome in adult male rats induced by feeding beef tallow-enriched homemade diet with fructose-containing drinking water.Comp Clin Path. 2021; 30: 541-547https://doi.org/10.1007/s00580-021-03248-7Crossref Scopus (1) Google Scholar,[22]De Bruyne T. Pieters L. Deelstra H. Vlietinck A. Condensed vegetables tannins: biodiversity in structure and biological activities.Biochem Syst Ecol. 1999; 27: 445-459https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-1978(98)00101-XCrossref Scopus (180) Google Scholar]. Flavonoids, which have been shown to have strong antioxidant properties, inhibit oxidative stress, and quenching free radicals in the system [[23]Etebu E. Differences in fruit size, Postharvest Pathology and Phytochemicals between Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu.Sustain Agric Res. 2012; 2: 52-61https://doi.org/10.5539/sar.v2n1p52Crossref Google Scholar]. Glycosides are beneficial in managing congestive heart failure [[24]Mahomoodally M.F. Traditional medicines in Africa: an appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants.Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013; (Article ID 617459): 1-14https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/617459Crossref Scopus (215) Google Scholar]. Terpenoids that were documented in this study agree with the report from [[25]Onyechi A.U. Ibeanu V.N. Eme P. Eze K. Madubike K. Nutrient, Phytochemical composition and consumption pattern of soursop (Annona muricata) pulp and drink among workers in University of Nigeria, Nsukka community.Pak J Nutr. 2015; 14: 866-870https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2015.866.870Crossref Scopus (1) Google Scholar]. Terpenoids possess therapeutic effects such as antimicrobial properties, anti-carcinogenic, anti-malarial, anti-ulcer, septicidal, antimicrobial, or diuretic activity [[26]Wolfe O.A. Ijeoma U.F. Effects of aqueous extracts of Irvingia gabonensis seeds on the hormonal parameters of male guinea pigs.Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2010; 3: 200-204https://doi.org/10.1016/S1995-7645(10)60009-0Crossref Scopus (8) Google Scholar,[27]Ajayi O.B. Akomolafe S.F. Adefioye A. Proximate Analysis, Mineral Contents, Amino Acid Composition, Anti-Nutrients and Phytochemical Screening of Brachystegia Eurycoma Harms and Pipper Guineense Schum and Thonn.Am J Food Nutr. 2014; 2: 11-17https://doi.org/10.12691/ajfn-2-1-3Crossref Google Scholar]. In herbal medicine, tannin-containing plant extracts are used in diarrhoea, stomach upset, and anti-inflammatory management [[28]Chung K.T. Wong T.Y. Wei C.I. Huang Y.W. Lin Y. Tannins and human health: a review.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 1998; 38: 421-462https://doi.org/10.1080/10408699891274273Crossref PubMed Scopus (1168) Google Scholar]. While saponins play a strong antibiotics role and prevent microbial growth [[29]Anaduaka E.G. Ogugua V.N. Egba S. Apeh V.O. Investigation of some important phytochemical, nutritional properties and toxicological potentials of ethanol extracts of Newbouldia laevis leaf and stem.Afr J Biotechnol. 2013; 12: 5846-5854https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2013.12308Crossref Google Scholar]. The significant increase in serum uric acid levels may be attributed to the presence of tannins. Tannins have been linked to the decreases in feed intake/efficiency, and protein digestibility in monogastric animals [[28]Chung K.T. Wong T.Y. Wei C.I. Huang Y.W. Lin Y. Tannins and human health: a review.Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 1998; 38: 421-462https://doi.org/10.1080/10408699891274273Crossref PubMed Scopus (1168) Google Scholar]. Although the impact of tannins on animals depends on the type of animals and their physiological state, feed, the amount and type of tannins in the diets [[30]Huang Q. Liu X. Zhao G. Hu T. Wang Y. Potential and challenges of tannins as an alternative to in-feed antibiotics for farm animal production.Animal Nutrition. 2018; 4: 137-150Crossref PubMed Scopus (158) Google Scholar]. It has been reported that the addition of tannins in pig diets (0.0125%–0.1%) adversely affected growth rate and haematology indices in pigs [[31]Lee S.H. Shinde P.L. Choi J.Y. Kwon I.K. Lee J.K. Pak S.I. Effects of tannic acid supplementation on growth performance, blood hematology, iron status and faecal microflora in weanling pigs.Livest Sci. 2010; 131: 281-286Crossref Scopus (47) Google Scholar]. In this study, a quantifiable number of tannins were present in APEIG as shown in the phytochemical constituent's result. The effects of tannins on serum uric acid levels and other biochemical parameters have been documented [[32]Barszcz M. Taciak M. Tuśnio A. Skomial J. Effects of dietary level of tannic acid and protein on internal organ weights and biochemical blood parameters of rats.PLoS ONE. 2018; 13e0190769https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190769Crossref PubMed Scopus (13) Google Scholar]. The significant decrease in serum urea level observed in rats administered 100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg body weight of the APEIG in this study (Table 2) may be associated with the presence of essential amino acids in the aqueous fruit extract of the Irvingia gabonensis. Amino acid profiles of Irvingia species have been documented [[33]Oduntan A.O. Babalola S.O. Kenneth-Obosi O. Awe O.F.E. Olabode I.A. Egbekunle K. et al.Evaluation of proximate, amino acid profile and oil characterisation of Irvingia wombolu fruit pulp and peel.International Food Research Journal. 2019; 26: 1371-1377Google Scholar]. It has been suggested that dietary amino acid compositions play a critical role in the regulation of urea synthesis [[34]Tujioka K. Ohsumi M. Hayase K. Yokogoshi H. Effect of the quality of dietary amino acids composition on the urea synthesis in rats.J Nutr Sci Vitaminol. 2011; 57: 48-55https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.57.48Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar]. The significant reduction in the serum creatinine levels in this study after the administration of APEIG suggests that the extract had no negative effect on the kidney. This is because an increase in creatinine is observed when the kidney is damaged or malfunctions [[35]Dixon T. Seeba Z. Abdelgadir E.E.E. Ahmed L.O.H. Limitations of serum creatinine as a marker of renal function.Sch Acad J Pharm. 2017; 6: 168-170https://doi.org/10.21276/sajpCrossref Google Scholar]. In this study, fasting blood sugar was reduced in the groups treated with APEIG (Fig. 1). This suggests that APEIG may be effective in reducing the fasting blood sugar level in normoglycaemic rats and hence useful in managing diabetes mellitus through the elevation of insulin concentration and thereby stimulating the pancreatic beta-cell functionality [[36]Ngondi J.L. Djiotsa E.J. Fossouo Z. Oben J. Hypoglycaemic effect of the methanol extract of Irvingia gabonensis seeds on streptozotocin diabetic rats.Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2006; 3: 74-77Crossref Scopus (9) Google Scholar]. The lipid profile result (Table 3) showed a moderate attenuating effect on the serum total cholesterol, LDL, VLDL levels, and subsequently a significant increase in serum HDL in the male albino rats. The potential effects of the extract on the lipid profile may be associated with the decline in the synthesis of cholesterol and its metabolism, as well as the expression of signal receptors of LDL [[37]Anaduaka E.G. Egba S.I. Ugwu J.U. Apeh V.O. Ugwu O.P.C. Effects of dietary tyrosine on serum cholesterol fractions in rats.Afr J Biochem Res. 2014; 8: 95-100Crossref Google Scholar]. LDL plays a major role in the development of atherosclerosis, especially after their oxidation while HDL reverses cholesterol transport and transfer of cholesterol esters from cell membranes which free cholesterol to the core of the HDL and inhibits the oxidation of LDL [[2]Egras A.M. Hamilton W.R. Lenz T.L. Monaghan M.S. An evidence-based review of fat modifying supplemental weight loss products.J Obes. 2011; 20: 29-36https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/297315Crossref Scopus (43) Google Scholar,[21]Uchendu N.O. Nkwocha C.C. Anaduaka E.G. Ezeanyika L.U.S. Metabolic syndrome in adult male rats induced by feeding beef tallow-enriched homemade diet with fructose-containing drinking water.Comp Clin Path. 2021; 30: 541-547https://doi.org/10.1007/s00580-021-03248-7Crossref Scopus (1) Google Scholar]. The decrease in the serum ALP activity (Table 4) indicates the possible absence of adverse effects of APEIG intake on the pathologies of the bone and liver since elevated serum ALP activity has been associated with bone diseases. Also, the significant reduction in serum ALP activity by APEIG may perhaps indicate the absence of cholestasis (lack of bile flow). Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an important indicator of liver function test, whose elevation is universally recognized as a marker of hepatobiliary or skeletal diseases [[38]An L. Yin W. Sun D. Albumin-to-alkaline phosphatase ratio as a promising indicator of prognosis in human cancers: is it possible?.BMC Cancer. 2021; 21: 1-18https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-021-07921-6Crossref PubMed Scopus (3) Google Scholar,[39]Eteng M.U. Ibekwe H.A. Abolaji A.O. Okoi A.I. Onwuka F.C. Osuchukwu N.C. Effect of Rauwolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae) extract on serum amino transferase and alkaline phosphatase activities and selected indices of liver and kidney functions.Afr J Biotechnol. 2009; 8: 4604-4607https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2009.000-9422Crossref Google Scholar]. The non-significant decrease and increase observed in the level of AST may be an indication of the absence of liver damage, which may be associated with APEIG administration. The concentration of ALT in serum decreased after the administration of APEIG suggests that our extract was not toxic to the liver. The non-significant increase in ALT levels may be attributed to the presence of the natural toxicant tannins and saponins in the fruit extract, which may affect the bioavailability of mineral elements in the diet [[29]Anaduaka E.G. Ogugua V.N. Egba S. Apeh V.O. Investigation of some important phytochemical, nutritional properties and toxicological potentials of ethanol extracts of Newbouldia laevis leaf and stem.Afr J Biotechnol. 2013; 12: 5846-5854https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2013.12308Crossref Google Scholar]. The protein concentration of the experimental rats at the end of the experiment was not significantly elevated compared to the concentration at the beginning of the experiment. This may indicate that the serum total proteins increased with age and support the report by [[40]Pandya D. Nagrajappa A.K. Ravi K.S. Assessment and correlation of urea and creatinine levels in saliva and serum of patients with chronic kidney disease, diabetes and hypertension– A research study.J Clin Diagn Res. 2016; 10: 58-62https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2016/20294.8651Crossref Scopus (57) Google Scholar]. The aqueous extract did not have any effect on the albumin and total bilirubin level of male albino rats. This study suggests that the administration of APEIG stabilizes and attenuates several biochemical parameters, including fasting blood sugar, lipid profile, liver, and kidney indices. These emphasize its usefulness in preventing and managing medical conditions that could arise from the aforementioned parameters.

Antibiofilm Activity of Extract and a Compound Isolated from Triumfetta welwitschii against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Triumfetta welwitschii has been used as a traditional medicine in Africa. It is documented as a rich source of phytochemicals with antibacterial activities. To further explore the antibacterial potential of these phytochemical components, the phytochemical profile of the dichloromethane: methanol leaf extract from T. welwitschii was investigated using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Compounds were isolated from the extract using column chromatography and thin-layer chromatography. Compound B1 was isolated from the fraction eluted by 90 hexane:10 ethyl acetate using column chromatography. The antibacterial activity of B1 against Pseudomonas aeruginosa was evaluated in vitro using the broth microdilution method and the iodonitrotetrazolium (INT) colorimetric assay. The antibiofilm activities of the extract and B1 against P. aeruginosa were determined by quantifying the biofilms using crystal violet. The effect of the extract and B1 on capsular polysaccharide and extracellular DNA content of biofilm formed by P. aeruginosa was determined using phenol-sulphuric acid and propidium iodide, respectively. A total of 28 peaks were detected and identified using UPLC-MS/MS. The three most abundant phytochemicals identified were catechin, umbelliferone, and a luteolin derivative. B1 showed antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) value of 25 μg/ml. Only 38% and 6% of the biofilms were formed in the presence of the extract and B1, respectively. The extract and B1 reduced the capsular polysaccharide content in biofilms formed in P. aeruginosa by 40% and 65%, respectively. The extract and B1 significantly reduced the extracellular DNA content of biofilms by 29% and 72%, respectively. The results of this study provide evidence of the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of B1 and leaf extracts from T. welwitschii. Future work should identify the chemical structure of B1 using nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry.

Hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective effects of cucumber (Cucumis Sativus L.)-Supplemented diet in both sexes of sprague-dawley rats

Background: In Africa traditional medicine, certain plant leaves and fruits are employed in the treatment of metabolic disorders such as dyslipidemia, oxidative stress, and liver disorders. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is named among Nigerian plants that are under investigation for its medicinal activities. The present study investigates the hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective potentials of C. sativus-supplemented diet in both sexes of Sprague-Dawley rats. Materials and Methods: Twelve male and twelve female Sprague-Dawley rats were used for this study and were grouped into four equal rats – Group A: control male (CM) fed with normal rat chow, Group B: control female (CF) fed with normal rat chow, Group C: cucumber-supplemented male (CSM) fed with cucumber-supplemented diet, and Group D: cucumber-supplemented female (CSF) fed with cucumber-supplemented diet for 6 weeks. At the end of the experiment, body weight change, cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), triglyceride (TG), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), hepatic lipase, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine amino transferase (ALT) were determined. Hepatic and myocytic glycogen, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH), and malonaldehyde (MDA) were also assessed. Results: The result displayed a nonsignificant decrease (P > 0.05) in weight change in CSM and CSF compared with CM and CF. TG and LDL downregulated significantly (P > 0.05) in CSM and CSF compared with CM and CF while HDL significantly upregulated (P

Evaluation of medicinal potential and antibacterial activity of selected plants against Streptococcus mutans

Article Details: Received: 2020-06-15 | Accepted: 2020-09-28 | Available online: 2021-03-31 https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2021.24.01.9-15 The aim of the study is to screen the bioactive compounds (saponin, tannin, phenolic compounds, terpenoid &amp; steroid) present in selected ethnomedicinal plants, Terminalia bellirica (fruits), Smilax zeylanica (leaves) and Dioscorea oppositifolia (fruits) from Odisha state, India. The single formulation was prepared using the selected plants parts in the ratio 1 : 6 : 3 respectively for quantitative analysis of tannin &amp; total phenol, antioxidant activity and analysis of MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration) against Streptococcus mutans causing bacteria of tooth decay. Results revealed that selected plant parts are rich source of bioactive compounds like tannin, phenolic compounds and saponin. The quantitative analysis of secondary metabolites showed highest concentration of tannin. It was noted that antioxidant activity is highest in methanol extract as compared to aqueous and acetone. MIC analysis also revealed that formulated powder had excellent antibacterial activity against S. mutans and it was observed the lowest values (450 µg ml-1) showed aqueous &amp; methanol followed by acetone. The herbal formulation might be used to formulate new herbal products against tooth decay in near future. Keywords: antibacterial activity, antioxidant activity, ethnomedicinal plants, secondary metabolites, tooth decay References ANDERSON, T. (2004). Dental treatment in medieval England. British Dental Journal, 197(7), 419–425. DESHMUKH, M.A. and THENG, M.A. (2018). Phytochemical screening, quantitative analysis of primary secondary metabolites of Acacia aeabica bark. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research, 10(2), 35–37. DHANYA, S.V.S., et al. (2018). Preliminary phytochemical activity of Smilax zeylanica L. (Smilaceaceae). 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Facteurs influençant l’efficacité des recettes galactogènes chez les vaches Borgou élevées en milieu réel au Bénin - Factors influencing the effectiveness of galactogenic recipes in Borgou cows reared in a real environment in Benin

Background: Ethnoveterinary medicine is an integral part of the cultural heritage associated with traditional medicine in Africa, where plants and natural products treat the ailments suffered by animals. Many plants are used to improve the dairy performance of local cows. The study assesses factors that influencing the effectiveness of galactogenic recipes administered to Borgou cows raised in real conditions in Benin.Methodology: A survey was carried out in the middle of the rainy season (April to September 2019), using a "focus group" to classify the plants involved in galactogenic recipes. The results obtained were subjected to a Factorial Correspondence Analysis (AFC) followed by a multiple regression carried out on qualitative data in particular, the organs of the plants used, the modes of use, the additives used and the administration route of recipe.Results: The Factorial Correspondence Analysis (CFA) carried out on the methods of choosing the plants given relative to the zones showed that the correlation between these two variables was explained at 66.69% (Figure 1) by the first two axes. Therefore, the involvement of species in revenue depends on their availability in the study area. Indeed, the correspondences resulting from the projection of the different plants used in galactogenic preparations and the different assessment methods of agro-breeders (Efficient, moderately efficient, and fair) in the AFC axis systems (Figure 1) showed that in the communes of Gogounou and Kalalé, Arachis hypogaea (L.) and Euphorbia balsamifera Aiton were the most effective species. On the other hand, in Djidja, the most efficient plant was Gardenia aqualla Stapf &amp; Hutch.For each species, the results of the multiple regressions carried out with the organs involved in the preparation of galactogenic recipes are shown in Table 1. The organs exhibiting a positive coefficient and a probability less than 0.05 are those which positively influenced milk production. Note that for the species presented in the above table, one or more organs can be used in recipes presumed to be galactogenic by traditional breeders. But the effectiveness of the recipe depends on the type involved in its constitution. It is interesting to note that in certain species: Aganope stuhlmannii (Taub.) Adema, Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn, Calotropis procera subsp. hamiltonii (Wight) Ali, Khaya senegalensis (Desv.) A.Juss, Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp, Gardenia aqualla Stapf &amp; Hutch, Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Clapier. Et Dalziel, Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon and Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn, several organs positively impacted milk production. However, for the same recipe, the association of several organs in its constitution has a depressive effect on milk production. Apart from the number of organs involved in the constitution of the recipes, the method of preparation associated with each plant species impacted the milk production of the cows. Out of the thirteen species (19) which had significant effects with milk production, the results of Table 2 indicate that the modes of use were successively ranked as follows (Table 2): Maceration&gt; decoction&gt; powder&gt; infusion were cited. Among the species which have undergone maceration: Budgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) JHKirkbr. &amp; Wiersema, Arachis hypogaea (L.), Euphorbia balsamifera Aiton and Curcubita maxima (L.) have been mentioned. Species such as: Gardenia aqualla Stapf &amp; Hutch, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench and Vittelaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn could only be effective if used as a decoction. The effectiveness of Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp on milk production could only be obtained by trituration for one hour. As for Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon, the method of use was only very effective by infusion (P &lt;0.001).Among the ingredients involved in the recipes, only salt and potash appeared to be significant (P &lt;0.05) on the milk production of cows. In addition, the results of the work indicated that the administration of oral preparations positively influenced milk production (P &lt;0.05).Conclusion: The study shows that agro-pastoralists have a perfect knowledge of the different factors that influence the effectiveness of galactogenic recipes. However, some plant species involved are becoming rare because of the development of crop fields to the detriment of forest cover. Most effective recipes involve the roots. This poses real problems for the ecology of the environment and the development of the species involved. Experiments are underway to confirm the results of the surveys.Keywords: Indigenous knowledge; Galactogenic; plants; affecting; production; milk; organs; Bénin.

Phytochemical profile and biological activities of Sudanese baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit pulp extract

The present work aimed to investigate the phytochemical profile and biological activities of Sudanese baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit pulp extract. Baobab fruit pulp serves as food, and has been used in traditional medicine in Africa for the treatment of several diseases, and believed to possess many biological activities. The sample of baobab fruit was collected from Blue Nile State in Sudan. The fruit pulp was obtained from baobab pods, sieved, extracted with methanol (80%), and analysed for its antioxidant activity, and alpha-glucosidase and nitric oxide (NO) inhibitory activities. The phytochemical constituents of the pulp were determined by LC-MS and 1H-NMR techniques. The results for antioxidant activity evaluated by DPPH and FRAP for methanolic extract were 232.70 mg Ascorbic Acid Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (AEAC)/g and 222.28 mmol/g of Fe2+, respectively. Baobab pulp extract showed greater capability in inhibiting the generation of NO from the stimulated RAW264.7 cells at 98.45% inhibition and IC50 of 36.55 µg/mL; and α-glucosidase enzyme activity at 97.94% inhibition and IC50 of 58.59 µg/mL. The LC-MS/MS analysis of the baobab extract showed that 52 compounds were found in the baobab pulp, including 19 flavonoids, ten phenolic acids, four lipids (glycero-3-phosphocholine derivative, 1,2-didodecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-sn-glycerol), 1-pentadecanoyl-2-(13Z,16Z-docosadienoyl)-glycero-3-phosphate, and glycero-3-hosphocholine derivative), sugars, organic acid, iridoids, adenosine, scopoletin, and taraxerone. The NMR detected 21 metabolites from baobab pulp extract including carbohydrates, organic acids, vitamin, amino acids, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and fatty acids. The present work is the first of its kind in comprehensively analysing the Sudanese baobab fruit pulp, combined with qualitative characterisation of chemical components using NMR, LC-MS, α-glucosidase, and NO inhibitors. Baobab fruit pulp contains several beneficial phytochemicals and biological activities, and it has potential positive effect on general human’s health.

Curcusone C induces apoptosis in endometrial cancer cells via mitochondria-dependent apoptotic and ERK pathway.

Jatropha curcashas been used in traditional medicine in Africa to treat cancer for thousands of years. This study aimed to examine the anti-endometrial cancer effect of Curcusone C, a naturally occurring rhamnofolane diterpene, isolated from J. curcasand reveal its molecular mechanism of action. Curcusone C treatment caused significant anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects in human endometrial cancer (EC) Ishikawa and HEC-1A cells in a dose-dependent manner. Exposure of EC cells to Curcusone C resulted in apoptosis, which was associated with cytochrome c release, caspase-3 and caspase-9 activation, Bcl-xL/Bax dysregulation, and decreased expression of inhibitors of apoptosis proteins, such as XIAP and survivin. The inhibitory effect induced by Curcusone C was greatly impaired by the overexpression of survivin or Bax-/- MEFs or the knockdown of Bim expression. Moreover, Curcusone C activated mitogen-activated protein kinases, and the ERK inhibitor U0126 significantly attenuated the growth-inhibitory and apoptotic effects of Curcusone C in Ishikawa cells. Taken together, the results demonstrate the anti-endometrial cancer potential of Curcusone C for the treatment of endometrial cancer.

Metabolite characterization, antioxidant, anti-proliferative and enzyme inhibitory activities of Lophira lanceolata Tiegh. ex Keay extracts

Lophira lanceolata Tiegh. ex Keay, a native tropical plant to west and central Africa, is a multifunctional plant used as timber and also exploited in traditional medicine in Africa. The present study present the pharmacological properties of Lophira lanceolata leaf and stem bark extracts prepared from different extraction procedures (infusion, homogenizer‐assisted extraction, maceration, soxhlet). The detailed phytochemical composition, in vitro antioxidant and antiproliferative assays, as well as the key enzyme (cholinesterases, tyrosinase, α‐amylase and α‐glucosidase) inhibitory potentials of the extracts were evaluated. Chemical profiling confirmed the presence of lanceolatins and lophirones in all analyzed plant parts. Higher levels of total phenolics (156.42 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g for maceration-water), phenolic acids (165.84 mg caffeic acid equivalent (CE)/g for maceration-water) and flavanols (101.51 mg catechin equivalent (CAE)/g for soxhlet-methanol (MeOH)) were observed in the stem bark extracts. Antioxidant assays showed remarkable free radical scavenging and reducing power activities for all extracts, among which stem bark showed the highest potential. Stem bark extracts (IC50 values: 57.55–93.10 μg/ml for colorectal adenocarcinoma (HT29) and 78.18–89.58 μg/ml for metastatic breast cancer cell line (MCF7)) also showed better antiproliferative effect than leaf (424.14–790.27 μg/ml for HT29 and 374.46–943.09 μg/ml for MCF7) on carcinoma cells while they induced proliferation in normal human cell lines (normal skin fibroblasts (HFF)). In the enzyme inhibitory assays, the methanol extracts of both plant parts were confirmed as effective against AChE, BChE (only stem barks extracts) and α-glucosidase enzymes. Regarding anti-tyrosinase effects, the methanol leaf extracts (122.21–131.17 mg kojic acid equivalent (KAE)/g) and all stem bark extracts (94.58–153.21 mg KAE/g) exhibited inhibitory effects. Findings amassed herein tend to validate the traditional uses of L. lanceolata and advocate for the development of phyto-medicaments based on its extracts.

Enrichment in Antioxidant Flavonoids of Stamen Extracts from Nymphaea lotus L. Using Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction and Macroporous Resin Adsorption.

Nymphaea lotus L. is the medicinal plant that has long been used for food, cosmetics and traditional medicines in Africa and Asia since ancient times. Its flavonoids and other interesting phytochemical compounds from rhizome, leaf and the whole flowers have been reported in the previous published research. However, stamens, which are essential for reproductive functions, may also represent new alternative sources of potential antioxidant flavonoids, as investigated in this study. The innovative green chemistry methods, i.e., ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) as well as a macroporous resin (MPR) purification procedure, were employed in this current research. Using a full factorial design coupled to three-dimensional (3D) surface plot methodology, the influence of three variables, namely aqEtOH concentration (ranging from 50 to 100% (v/v), US frequency (ranging from 0 (no US applied) to 45 kHz), and the extraction duration (ranging from 20 to 60 min), were evaluated. Five MPRs with different surface areas, average pore diameters, matrix types and polarities were also investigated for the purification of total flavonoids. The optimal UAE condition is 90% (v/v) aqEtOH with 34.65 khz ultrasonic frequency and 46 min of extraction duration. Compared with the conventional heat reflux extraction (HRE) method, a significant 1.35-fold increase in total flavonoids content was obtained using optimized UAE conditions (169.64 for HRE vs. 235.45 mg/g dry weight for UAE), causing a 2.80-fold increase when this UAE associated with MPR purification (475.42 mg/g dry weight). In vitro cell free antioxidant activity of N. lotus stamen extracts and in cellulo antioxidant investigation using yeast model showed the same trend, indicating that the best antioxidant flavonoid can be found in UAE coupled with MPR purification. Moreover, in the yeast model, the expression of key antioxidant genes such as SIR2 and SOD2 were expressed at the highest level in yeast cells treated with the extract from UAE together with MPR purification. Consequently, it can be seen that the UAE combined with MPR purification can help enhance the flavonoid antioxidant potential of the stamens extract from this medicinal species.

Phytochemical and biological investigation of 5 bioactive fractions of Caralluma acutangula, a medicinal plant used in traditional medicine in northern of Burkina Faso

Caralluma acutangula is a medicinal plant used in traditional medicine in Africa against various pathologies. The objective of this study is to contribute to a better understanding of the biological activity of 5 fractions from Caralluma acutangula which can be used against the harmful effects of oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is most often associated with various diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, etc. So the 5 fractions, namely the Hexanic, Dichloromethane (DCM), ethyl acetate (AE), butanolic and aqueous fraction have been used for the determination of their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential through different method. Their phytochemical content was also determined. Flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and coumarins have been detected in the different fractions. The ethyl acetate fraction of C. acutangula gives the best total polyphenol and flavonoid content respectively of 337.67 ± 7.26 mg EAG/g of extract and 21.65 ± 1.16 mg EQ/g of extract. For the inhibition of hydrogen peroxide, the fractions AE and DCM showed the best activity with 29.84 ± 1.59 and 28.53 ± 2.81% greater inhibition than that of the gallic acid (14.19 ± 0.70) used as a reference. For the effect of the fractions on the lipoxygenase at the concentration of 1 mg/ml, we have the hexanic fraction which exhibited the best activity with an inhibition of the enzyme at 67.21 ± 4.13%. The ethyl acetate fraction in general has shown good potential against oxidative stress. This fraction could therefore be used in the formulation of a phytomedicine against oxidative stress and its associated diseases.